Drought: A Global Future?

To humanity in the desert the sudden appearance of dark clouds was not ominous. They may have prayed or danced to summon their appearance. Rain was a blessing; water was sacred; life was in the balance. Globally a ritual repeats itself: the washing of the body for purification, the sanctity of the garden lush with greenery and water. Civilization began in proximity to water and flourished when mankind learned to manipulate it. When the resource became inadequate, civilizations collapsed (Moran 2008).

Globally, the process continues, but perhaps at an extreme never before experienced. Water on Earth isn't rare. From space our planet glows iridescently blue with the shimmer of sunlight on the ocean. Water that humanity can use is exceedingly rare. For every person on Earth now, there is just 1700 cubic meters of fresh water, the amount an average American uses in 11 months, the largest component of which is stored in underground aquifers. Very little exist in liquid form on the surface. And a trend is becoming evident. An already rare resource is becoming rarer. If it seems water is plentiful, it is because water is disparately distributed. Many regions have very little and though others may have more, cyclical process produce periods of prolonged drought. Pollution and overuse threaten freshwater reserves remaining. In the United States for instance, less than half of the freshwater available 55 years ago is available now. In many countries, fresh water supplies have been decimated. Eighty percent of Chinese rivers can no longer support healthy ecosystems and have suffered ecological collapse. Nearly half of American rivers and lakes are considered too polluted to be safe for human beings (Alois, 2007).

Oil, a substance important economically, but not needed to support life, has already sparked global contest. Many worry that conflict, and possibly war, over water will be next, escalating to global proportions. Examples already abound: Palestine, India, east Africa, and China already experience conflict that can be linked to water shortages and pollution. And these shortages may be exacerbated by global climate disruption (Foulkes, 2006).

Humanity began among the arid and semi arid regions of the world. When we study these cultures it may be important to consider that we are not studying the past or present, but planning for our future.

Additional Links:

Water Wars

Blue Gold

Global Trends in Water Availability


Alois, P. (2007, April). Global water crisis overview. Retrieved from http://www.arlingtoninstitute.org/wbp/global-water-crisis/441#_ftn6

Foulkes, I. (2006, August 16). Water shortage a global problem. Retrieved from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4796909.stm

Moran, E. F. (2008). Human adaptability. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

The Destruction of Urbanization

The Destruction of Urbanization

Countries that are able to harness and utilize technology and its advancement have had a large amounts of economic growth. Technology has lead the world to become a flatter place because of globalization. Globalization has help boost income per capita in rural countries, and many agricultural based nations want to become urbanized, so they too could utilize technology to globalize their economy. Those who make the decision to become urbanize are the elite officials. They do not see the harmful and lasting affects that urbanization could do to their country.

For example China was once a vast land of open nature, but now its an urbanize nation that filled with pollution and contaminates. Their water is contaminated with high concentration of mercury, and their air is filled with smoke clouds from fuel burning power plants. There are no laws or regulations to stop these industries from polluting the land. There is overfishing and over usage of non renewable resources which harms the locals. Health conditions are rapidly decreasing because of the harmful living conditions. People are malnourished because there is not enough food to eat. Chinese children are are becoming weaker, because they are breathing in the harmful air and drinking the contaminated water. Fertility rates have been declining, because women are not being properly nourish. The Chinese government traded the health of its people and the beauty of its environment for an increase in economic growth.

The government is now trying to implement environmental regulations, so they could have a more sustainable life for its people . Those who have to cut back on their pollutants are not the industries, but the people who live in the slums. They are the ones that are suffering from the pollutants and the lack of resource and now they are the ones that have to clean it up. China is now one of the top three leading competitors in the global market, but it has lost the beauty of its land and the health of its people. Urbanization leads to growth for the economy, and also leads to the destruction of the people.

References

Barrett, John & Guan, Dabo & Hubecek, Klaus & Wiedmann, Thomas (2009) Environmental Implications of Urbanization and Lifestyle Change in China: Ecological and Water Footprints, Business Source Complete, Retrieved Oct 28, 2009 http://web.ebscohost.com.libaccess.sjlibrary.org/bsi/detail?vid=7&hid=106&sid=38b2d8e8-276e-4c62-ae3c-d58c83a16dcf%40sessionmgr10&bdata=JnNpdGU9YnNpLWxpdmU%3d#db=bth&AN=43002907

The Urban Environment and Smart Growth

Development patterns in cities vary from country to country. Smart growth is a “concept (that) calls for focusing future growth on existing built-up areas to establish a compact, efficient, and environmentally sensitive pattern of urban development that provides people with various transportation systems and a range of housing and employment choices” (Arku 2009). European cities tend to be more compact and implement smart growth tactics for new developments, while “American cities are particularly wasteful of land and resources with very few of them showing much sense of restraint in their sprawling growth” (Moran 2008, 309).

Developing countries, such as those in Africa, are experiencing dramatic increases in population of urban areas without much, if any, restraint on sprawl (Moran 2008). There are many social and environmental consequences that occur when urban areas expand outward with unregulated speed. One example of a consequence of this type of growth can be found in “…sub-Saharan Africa (where) more than seven in ten urban dwellers live in a slum lacking basic services such as water and sanitation…” (Moran 2008, 307). Increases in pollution, resource depletion, energy use, and decreases in the quality of life are other effects of urban sprawl. The rate at which some African cities are growing, makes implementing smart growth tactics difficult. For example, the city of Cairo “doubled in size in less than five years” (Arku 2009, 261). As urban populations grow, it is undeniably imperative that governments begin applying smart growth techniques, such as infill, which develops degraded areas within the city, and increasing public transportation, jobs and housing in downtown or core areas. It is also necessary that the governments of these areas provide the basic services, such as clean drinking water and sanitation.

Since many developing countries are seeing explosive growth in their urban areas, they must begin regulating the growth of these cities immediately to combat the subsequent social and environmental consequences. By increasing the quality of life, health, and services for the urban dwellers, these cities may see a large expansion in economic productivity and an increase in stability of the population as life expectancy rises.

References:
Arku, Goodwin. 2009. Rapidly Growing African Cities Need to Adopt Smart Growth Policies to Solve Urban Development Concerns. Urban Forum 20, no. 3: 253-270. http://search.ebscohost.com.libaccess.sjlibrary.org/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=43169103&loginpage=Login.asp&site=ehost-live (accessed October 26, 2009)

Moran, Emilio F. 2008. Human Adaptability an Introduction to Ecological Anthropology. 3rd ed. New York: Westview.

Human Adaptability to Tropical Regions: Responses to Deforestation

Tropical Deforestation: Where does it begin?

Deforestation is occurring all around the globe. As a society we need to educate one another about the travesty of lost rain forests. There are many facts and opinions as to what is causing the loss of these essential rain forests and much research is being done about how to stop the irreversible damage. This simplest way to begin is to stop cutting the forest down, unless of course you know how to rebuild it.

Shifting cultivation is a common farming strategy used in tropical rain forests. It is commonly known as slash-and-burn or swidden. This technique is erroneously believed to be “practiced by primitive farmers on inferior soils” (Moran 283). Swidden is practiced all over the world and has been shown as an effective procedure in preparing the land for cultivation. Because of its simplicity, swidden requires minimal labor and resources, both monetarily and physically. By burning the biomass of the forest its nutrients become ingredients in the soil that will raise healthful crops. Traditional swidden practices allow the land to rest more than it is cultivated (Moran 283). The slash-and-burn technique provides many benefits to the farmers such as; killing the parasites, insects and bacteria, eradicating the unwanted rodents as well as the seeds of congesting weeds. In Peru experiments showed that land cultivated using the swidden technique produced 50-60% higher yields than from land cultivated by machinery (Moran, Sanchez 1974). If the cultivation of the land does not cease in a timely manner, forest re-growth will not occur and only grasses will grow in place of the forest. With a strong demand upon farmers to produce sustainable crops in greater quantities permanent deforestation has begun to emerge.

In Madagascar this slash-and-burn style of land cultivation is known as tavy. According to Jarosz, deforestation of the rain forests of Madagascar can be inextricably linked to its annexation as a French colony. When the French arrived many people fled into the forest where they survived by growing their own food. When the French began to collect taxes they found it much easier if the Malagasys lived close together in colonies. The French outlawed tavy because it required a family group to go off into the wilderness, making it harder to collect taxes, and as a result more natives fled into the forests. Jarosz argues that the colonial states policy on shifting cultivation as well as export crops accelerated deforestation. Coffee crops created a higher net profit for farmers which led to insufficient production of rice and greater acreage of rain forests lost to growing crops. The French wanted Madagascar to produce exports of coffee, rice, maize, cloves, vanilla and Ylang Ylang flowers. A study done in 1972 showed that soil erosion rates on coffee fields are nearly double the rates of soil used to grow sustainable crops. Due to the states requisite on export levels the pattern of healthy soil cultivation was abandoned and thus developed increased rates of deforestation.

Whether deforestation is a result of government pressures, native traditions, or reckless human behavior, researchers tells us that if we continue along this destructive path of deforestation future generations will suffer from a multitude of known and unknown consequences. Re-growth of the rain forest will never be achieved if humans don’t come together to “save the rain forest.”

Works Cited

Jarosz, Lucy. "Defining and Explaining Tropical Deforestation: Shifting Cultivation and Population Growth in.." Economic Geography 69.4 (1993): 366. <http://search.ebscohost.com.libaccess.sjlibrary.org/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=9406170102&loginpage=Login.asp&site=ehost-live>.

Moran, E. F. Human Adaptability: An Introduction to Ecological Anthropology. PERSEUS BOOKS, 2008. . google.

Human Adapatability to Tropical Regions: Responses to Game Scarcity

The traditional inhabitants of humid tropical forests, especially in the Brazilian Amazon, enjoy a smorgasbord of wildlife to hunt. Many tribes however are not alone and must share their resources with other tribes. Hunting norms and taboos help inhabitants of tropical regions—as well as inhabitants in other habitats—cope with game scarcity.
The Tukano tribe of the Vaupés River in the Colombian northeast Amazon tropical rain forest has intricate symbolic systems of when, where and how a hunter can kill his prey (Moran, 276). The Tukano believe that animals and humans share the same pools of reproductive energy, from which each has a set limit. Therefore, it is important for the Tukano to regulate their own sexual activity and reproduction in order to leave enough sexual energy for the animals to reproduce and serve as nourishment to the human community.
As part of this belief, the hunter abstains from sex or sexual thoughts before and after the hunt, or when his wife is menstruating, The hunter instead focuses his sexual energy on courting and seducing the prey. These types of ritual systems restrict frequency of hunting and of human reproduction, reducing the number of mouths to feed.
Colding and Folke (2001) label these types of resource managing behaviors resource and habitat taboos. Many tribes, besides the Tukano, have rules and norms as to how, what and when you can hunt or eat. They divided these taboos into six categories: segment taboos, temporal taboos, method taboos, life history taboos, specific species taboos, and habitat taboos. Most all of these practices protect ritually important or nutritionally crucial animals from overexploitation either during mating season, a particularly weak stage of life, or when considered scarce.
The question Colding and Folke ask pertains to how the resource and habitat taboos could possibly be applied to western conservation efforts. Some are already in place, but some are impossible given cultural constraints. Western hunters abide by specified hunting seasons particular to each species by law; however, western hunters would be unlikely to abstain from sex before and after each hunt. Conservation of nature in Western societies will be dependent on education and legislation.

Colding J. and C. Folke. “Social Taboos: ‘Invisible’ Systems of Local Resource Management and Biological Conservation.” Ecological Applications. 11. 2 (2001): 584-600

Moran, E. (2008) Human Adaptability: An Introduction to Ecological Anthropology. Westview Press, Colorado, 263-304 pp. JStore. Web. 25 Oct. 2009.

The Grassland and Human Adaptability

The Grassland and Human Adaptability

Did you know that the grassland and savannah environment covers up 1/3 of the world’s land and 1/5 of the world’s population? Grassland is believed to mostly reside in Asia but has traveled to many countries such as Africa, Australia, South and North America. Quality and quantity of grasslands are based on the ecosystem, climate and vegetation features, soil conditions, formation and development of grasslands and fire management. Because there is drought cycles, dehydration, fires, and the human population in areas where grassland environments exist they can survive in almost all climates and all weathers, either developing into something new or surviving on the old. If one was to travel or live in a grassland environment there are some things to be understood.

Through the ecosystem it has been stated that many different reasons how grassland environment was left vulnerable and weak, yet through slight changes many grasslands have been saved. It is said that through the one hundred to one hundred thirty-year drought in the Northern planes of United States grass productivity declined and evaporated, however, irrigation was yet introduced.

Climate & Vegetation Features depends on where, when and at what point of the year you are standing. However, for the most part rainfall is seasonal and fluctuates as well as the dry and wet years where seem to follow each other. Because of the different climates grasslands change to accustom their weather. Tropical grasslands and some savannahs are found in climates, which receive plentiful amounts of rainfall and less evaporation.

Did you know that the soil condition is made up of 50 percent of carbon, which is shoved under the surface, and phosphorus, which is found on top of the surface? So when scientists wonder where have all the phosphorus gone, they look at the animals. Because animals and humans eat plants found in the dirt they are eating and carrying phosphorus with them. When animals die the phosphorus is then reincarnated back to the environment and as humans travel they are changing the locations of phosphorus.

Formation and development of grasslands change more so because as the climates and the formations change the grasslands change into new breeds. Grasslands have expanded, some have decreased all in all they continue to change and develop into new beginnings. Humans can adapt to all settings as long as they have some knowledge or experience in such atmospheres.

Fire management is shown through two major types of temperate grass: sod and bunch. Sod grasses form a thick mat over the ground, and the bunch grass grows in clusters all over. Over time grasslands accumulate a thickness that covers the earth called “Mulch” which comes from sod types of grass. Through man made and God made fires it is the only way to rid the earth of mulch. And it is through fire management that the mulch disappears and expands the need for phosphorus and potassium.

Throughout the grassland chapter is has become clearer to me just how large the grassland population to people and the earth is. Can humans live in such environments? In the Central Himalayan region of India, many humans have adapted to the grassland way of life, however, due to there over populating community they are slowly declining. As forests are evaporating and food is becoming harder to find, soon the Indian grassland may disappear. So is living in the grassland a good idea or not? Will everyone respect each other’s boundaries or will they run out of supplies?

Citations:

Moran, Emilio F. "Human Adaptability: An Introduction to Ecological Anthropology." Human Adaptability to Grasslands. Third Edition. Westview Press, 2008. 227-236.

Samal, Prasanna K., Lok Man S. Palni, and Devendra K. Agrawal "Ecology, ecological poverty and sustainable development in Central Himalayan region of India." International Journal for Sustainable Development & World Ecology 10.2 (2003): 157. Academic Search Complete. EBSCO. Web. 21 Oct. 2009.

A Precarious Situation for the Bedouin of Negev

It clearly states in Human Adaptability that survivability in arid ecosystems depends upon the effective appropriation and storage of water. Additionally, to augment the survival and subsistence needs for pastoral nomads in arid environments, they must locate adequate grazing areas for their herds. It is widely accepted that pastoral nomads do not recognize political or national boundaries; instead, they tend to acknowledge "socio-ecological" boundaries determined by intergroup arrangements. (Meir and Tsoar 1996) For example, the Bedouin in the Negev, Sinai and Arabian deserts have been grazing their herds on traditional pastoral lands for centuries.

Human Adaptability clearly states that most humans acclimate to arid environments in approximately one to two weeks. Thus, success in arid environments is cultural. According to Avinoam Meir and Haim Tsoar, the Bedouin in antiquity have implemented effective "range management systems" and adopted the idea of "spatial flexibility." The Bedouin have utilized perennial vegetation for grazing and seasonal rains to determine migratory patterns for centuries.

Unfortunately for the Bedouin, recent political circumstances of the latter 19^th century and mid-20^th century have constrained the resources in which they have to graze their herds. After several wars with its Arab neighbors, Israel effectively closed it national borders to Bedouin traffic. On Israel's southern border in the Sinai Peninsula (Egypt), a now much larger Bedouin population than normal is competing for an inadequate amount of ecological resources. A substantial amount of damage has been done to the perennial vegetation in the area. Furthermore, this new ecological constraint has led to almost the complete desertification of the Egyptian side of the border. Conversely, the Israeli side of the border is flourishing with the same perennial vegetation. (1996)

Cultural and societal adaptations combined with generations of invaluable folk knowledge have made the Bedouin one of the most resilient and successful pastoral cultures in arid to semi-arid environments. However, recent socio-political pressures have forced the Bedouin into a precarious situation.

Reference:

Avinoam Meir, and Haim Tsoar, "International Borders and Range Ecology: The Case of Bedouin Transborder Grazing," Human Ecology, Vol. 24, No. 1 (March 1996), pp. 39-64, Accessed: 18 October 2009. Available from: http://www.jstor.org/stable/46032

Prolonging Nursing

Moran states that “Nomadic hunter-gatherers such as the !Kung must keep their numbers low if the resources on which they rely are to be naturally renewed” (2008, 207). Prolonging lactation and cultural taboos on intercourse during lactation are mentioned in contributing to the reduction in fertility and also to the low growth rate of the !Kung population. However, the low number in population for ensuring resources are naturally renewed are not the only justification for prolonging nursing.

According to Konner and Shostak, “Life expectancy is approximately 32 years, determined mainly by high infant mortality-between 10 and 20% in the first year, almost all due to infectious disease” (1987, 12). Frequent nursing and late weaning can positively contribute to the overall health of an infant and its chance at survival. The benefit of nutritional stability is provided for a long period of time and will fight the high morbidity and mortality rates. Another benefit includes maximizing the number of surviving offspring by holding back fertility and ensures an adequate or optimal amount of time is between each birth. Prolonged nursing also guarantees frequent delivery of antibodies and macrophages to the infant’s gut to combat enteric microorganisms. In addition, the closeness between the mother and infant support the transfer of culturally stored knowledge and also allows the mother to develop antibodies against microbes encountered by the infant. The close mother and infant proximity is a cultural choice, however, selective forces such as hunger in the infant and disease also play a factor in prolonging nursing (Konner and Shostak 1987).

References:
Konner, Melvin and Marjorie Shostak. 1987. Timing and Management of Birth among the !Kung: Biocultural Interaction in Reproductive Adaptation. Cultural Anthropology, Vol. 2, No. 1, Biological and Cultural Anthropology at Emory University (Feb., 1987), pp. 11-28. Published by: Blackwell Publishing on behalf of the American Anthropological Association. http://www.jstor.org/stable/656392

Moran, Emilio F. 2008. Human Adaptability An Introduction to Ecological Anthropology. New York: Westview.

Health Effects of Desertification

For millennia, people have learned to live in the hot and dry climate of a desert. Humans found ways to cope with blistering heat during the summer seasons, and cold winter seasons. A good example of how people have acclimated to harsh conditions of the desert is Las Vegas. In Las Vegas, temperatures can reach 45 C in the summer at night, yet humans decided to create an entertainment Mecca in these conditions. The flickering lights and the cool air conditioning would never have been possible though if it wasn’t for the power produced by the most abundant substance on earth: water.

Water is the most important substance when residing in any desert. If there is no water, then there is no way to reside in that environment. According to Moran (2008), human populations appear to have neither genetic nor developmental adaptations for living in dry heat areas. They depend on acclamatory and behavioral adjustments to facilitate their occupation of these regions and usually take 2 weeks to do so (p 189). The biggest problem, Moran continues, is controlling water, storing and distributing it, managing the consumption, and minimizing its loss. If these issues are taken care of, there will not be a problem. Since Las Vegas has a steady supply of water from the Colorado River’s runoff, the city will survive, and most likely continue to thrive.

What would happen though, if a population lost its water? Las Vegas will not run out of water anytime soon, but the populations near the Aral Sea will. For the past 50 years, the Aral Sea in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan (also an arid environment) has been drying up creating a desert wasteland. The water from the two rivers that fed the Aral Sea, the Syr Darya and the Amu Darya, has been diverted for irrigation purposes. While the people of these two countries were able to farm cotton and food, the trade off has been nothing short of an environmental disaster that has destroyed multiple species wildlife, fish, and vegetation. And now, there is proof that the process of desertification has affected the health of many populations in the surrounding area.

Adrian and colleagues (2001) pointed out that the deterioration of the ecological equilibrium in the Aral Sea region has increased the salinization and aridization processes of the region resulting in the exposure of large areas of soil. The dust that is picked up by local wind currents contains heavy metals, pesticides, fertilizers, salts, and other toxic chemicals (p 589). These pollutants that contaminate the air have caused an array of health problems, especially in pregnant women and young children. The health problems include: retardation, malabsorbtion, thyroid problems, chronic renal and lung diseases, and even blood contamination (Ardian et al 2001; Moran 2008).

Is it possible for humans to adapt to the conditions in the Aral Sea region? Possibly. They will have to adapt to the conditions of their own doing, however, this seems unlikely without medical treatment considering the complex chemicals and the diseases associated with them. In both cases, Las Vegas and the Aral Sea, are examples of how humans effect the environment and vice versa. Humans have learned how to successfully maintain a society in an arid environment. On the other hand, humans have learned how to create a desert out of what was once the fifth largest lake in the world.

Moran, E (2008). Human Adaptability: An Introduction to Ecological Anthropology. Westview Press, Colorado.

Adrian, S.; Ataniyazova, O.; Mazhitova, Z.; Moshammer, H.; Prindull, G.; Zetterstrom, R. (2001). Continuing Progressive Deterioration of the Environment in the Aral Sea Region: Disastrous Effects on Mother and Child Health. Acta Paediatrica. Vol 90, Issue 5. Pgs 589-591.

State of Environment of the Aral Sea Basin (2000). Website. http://enrin.grida.no/aral/aralsea/english/arsea/arsea.htm

Adaptation to High Altitude Conditions

Over generations, humans have adjusted to survive in high altitude environments with many physical stresses imposed upon them. Even today, we are evolving, though the modern world views human race as being the perfect end product with no need for improvement. The truth is, the humans, like the homo ergaster or the homo neanderthalensis will evolve, or stop existing. Humans must change and evolve with their environment. Tibetans are subtly evolving to be fit in their high altitude surroundings. Those who have yet to adapt will suffer.

If an individual who normally lives at sea level, travels to a higher altitude environment, they may experience “symptomatic discomfort, reduced work capacity, accelerated breathing, higher hemoglobin levels, and higher arterial pressure.”(Moran 2008) New comers to the environment may also experience such conditions as hypoxia (low oxygen pressure) or even pulmonary disease due to the lack of oxygen in the air. Other harsh conditions in high altitudes consist of: “cold stress, aridity, shallow soils, steep slopes, and low biological productivity” (Moran 2008). The Tibetan and the Andean populations live in these conditions. Daily, they face environmental challenges that are key in their adaptability to their environment.

Tibetans and other natives have adapted to hypoxia over generations. Their bodies have “increased the availability of oxygen, and the pressure of oxygen at the tissue level”(Moran 2008) Tibetans of both sexes, have much larger chest cavities than populations that live at a lower altitude.

Cynthia M. Beall, is a physical anthropologist who has done studies comparing, the interaction of evolution and adaptation between the Tibetan and Andean peoples at high altitudes. Certain patterns between these two populations has indirectly suggested that there are population-level differences. There is a detected gene for oxygen saturation among the Tibetans(Moran 2008). The oxygen saturation gene evolved due to the environmental pressures that challenges the Tibetans daily. Individuals with the dominant allele for higher oxygen saturation have a selective advantage at high altitude environments. This gene is what makes the Tibetan population more adapted than the Andean population to their environment. Tibetan “women estimated with high probability to have high oxygen saturation genotypes have more surviving children than women estimated with high probability to have the low oxygen saturation genotype.”(Beall 2009) This gene, although it seems insignificant, is proof that humans are still evolving, and in this case, to become more fit in their daily environment.

Although humans are viewed as the end product of evolution, we are still subtly adapting to our environmental pressures, and evolving to match our environment. Each generation plays a part in the evolution of what conditions humans will or will not adapt to.

Sources

1.)Moran, Emilio F. Human Adaptability An Introduction to Ecological Anthropology. New York: Westview, 2008. Print.

2.)"Andean, Tibetan, and Ethiopian patterns of adaptation to high-altitude hypoxia -- Beall 46 (1): 18 -- Integrative and Comparative Biology." Oxford Journals | Life Sciences | Integrative and Comparative Biology. Web. 15 Oct. 2009.

Life in the Sky: A Closer look at the Coca plant

Life in the mountains can be very stressful. There are many factors that create problems for those who find permanent residence in high altitudes. These problems range from hypoxia [a lack of oxygen], cold stress, and pulmonary diseases. (Moran) Often, when one first enters a high altitude environment, it hard to adjust to the lack of oxygen. This leads to a higher rate of fatigue and a lower rate of work capacity. However, natives perform better than new comers and part of that reason lies in what they chew.

According to the Andes natives, chewing the leaves of the coca plant enhances their work ability and have even refused to work if they were not supplied with coca leaves (Moran 169). It is said that the coca leaf “takes away hunger and thirst, and gives them strength to work” (Bray/Dollery 271) which allows for longer and harder work days despite the lack of oxygen.

Coca; a plant part of the Erythroxylaceae family, elevates the heart rate, decreases the loss of body heat, allowing the core heat in the body to rise. This gives an extreme advantage when working outside where the temperature can get quite cold (Moran 169). Chewers of the coca plant also have the ability to stay awake days at a time allowing full attention when on sentry duty (Bray/Dollery 271). But is the coca leaf the reason all of this is possible or is it just an accessory of their culture?

Coca leaves are actually used in many different cultures and is not just reserved for the ones in high altitudes. The use of these leaves can even be dated way back in history. From accounts made by Columbus and European settlers (Bray/Dollery 270) to ancient ruins where mummies have been discovered with evidence of long term coca chewing habits (Moran 169). Therefore, if the coca leaf is not saved for high altitude cultures alone, there must be other explanations for their ability to complete a hard days work.

Good physical training and lifelong exposure play an important role in their ability to work at high capacities. The longer one has to adjust to the lack of oxygen the higher oxygen consumption they receive. This is also why children who develop at high altitudes become adults that have a high work capacity. They are actually very similar to athletes in the way their bodies work under the stress of lack of air (Moran 169). Another factor is diet. High carbohydrates, low protein and low fat enhance muscle glycogen and help manage hypoglycemia, all helping them become stronger (Moran 170).

In conclusion, though believed to be originated and necessary in the Andes coca chewing is in fact more part of their history rather than a need to chew (Bray/Dollery 274). Yes, the chewing of coca leaves has its advantages in a high altitude society, but it is not the only resource.


Moran, E. (2008) Human Adaptability: An Introduction to Ecological Anthropology. Westview Press, Colorado, 169-171 pp.

Bray, Warwick, and Colin Dollery. "Coca Chewing and High Altitude Stress: A Spurious Correlation." Chicago Journals 24.3 (1983): 269-82. Jstore. Web. 14 Oct. 2009. .

Fertility/ Fecundity Adaption In high Altitude Locations

Fertility/ Fecundity Adaption In high Altitude Locations

The issue of fertility/ fecundity has been a prominent topic with lots of research and not many conclusions. There are many determining factors that are possible explanations for lower fertility rates in higher altitudes. Described in the book, Human Adaptability, by Emilio F. Moran some of these factors are hypoxia(problem from low oxygen pressure), cold, and malnutrition as factors of low fertility.  Scholarly authors; Goldstein, Tsarong, and Beall, argue in their article, High Altitude Hypoxia, Culture, and Human Fecundity/Fertility: A Comparative Study, that there are low fertility rates in some areas of high altitudes, however there is contradictive evidence in other high altitude locations. I would stand to say that the fertility rates are most likely not described solely to the altitude where they live, but that there are many cultural aspects that are involved, such as their religious beliefs, and cultural customs.

Moran discusses the theory that, “there appears to be no hypoxic stress on the fetus during pregnancy, possibly as a result of an increase in the size of the placenta, which facilitates delivery of oxygen to the fetus without unduly increasing the demands on the mother. Infant mortality is most often a result of low birth weight. The stress of altitude is further exacerbated by poverty and poor health services”(172).  This argument attributes low fertility levels to several factors, and names altitude as one contributor to the issue.

            The contradictory argument from the article admits that, “More recently, attention turned to another major high altitude zone, the Himalayas. The first reports from this area dealt with Khumbu Sherpas of Nepal. These depicted extremely low fertility (Weitz et al. 1978; Gupta 1978, 1980) and appeared to corroborate Andean findings of a hypoxic effect (Gupta 1978, 1980; Bangham and Sacherer 1980; Weitz 1981b). However, subsequent research in Limi, another high altitude area in Nepal (Goldstein 1981b), reported contrary findings and questioned the validity of these reports”(29). This would arouse the thinking that perhaps there is many cultural aspects working together that would create this difference between cultures living in these high altitude regions.

           

            Comparing these arguments, I stand on the opinion that there are many cultural aspects that are involved in fertility/fecundity of a society than the altitude at which they live. It will of course play a role in the adaption of people to their environment so that they are living “good enough” to survive, but their religion, and customs will play a significant role as well when determining the levels of fertilities and the reasons for it.

 

1) Moran, Emilio F. Human Adaptability. CO: Westview Press, 2008.

2) Goldstein, Melvyn C., Tsarong,Paljor, and Beall, Cynthia M. ”High Altitude Hypoxia    Culture, and Human Fecundity/Fertility: A Comparative Study”American Anthropologist, New Series, Vol. 85, No. 1 (Mar., 1983), pp. 28-49Blackwell Publishing on behalf of the American Anthropological Association. 14 October 2009. http://www.jstor.org/stable/676031

 

 

Health Concerns for the Inuit

     Traditional survival methods of Northern Alaskan Inuit’s supply adequate nutritional resources to sustain life (Moran, 2008).  The style in which food and shelter resources were collected perpetuated the Inuit’s good level of fitness by forcing them to engage in physical activity while hunting, trapping and fishing (Liu, Hanely, Young, Harris, & Zinman, 2006).  Modern generation Inuit’s have put tradition on hold and chosen to adopt newer alternative methods for survival.  Western industrialized foods in place of naturally obtained nutritional sources cause unbalanced nutrient intakes, snowmobiles in place of Dog pulled sleds minimize hard labor, and prefabricated plywood shacks in place of sod or snow igloos reduce air quality (Moran, 2008).  Liu et al. (2006) explains alterations such as these to the Inuit people’s daily life and dieting have resulted in rising health concerns and increased risks for the metabolic syndrome (MetS).

     Traditional Inuit diets consisted of seal, caribou, walrus, and fish.  These are high protein high fat but low carbohydrate sources of food.  When properly prepared these foods are able to yield all essential nutrients (Moran, 2008). Traditionally obtained foods offer mainly polyunsaturated fats conducive to improved health and protein for muscle tissue (Moran, 2008).  Traditional Inuit health profiles describe them as having low blood pressure, low blood cholesterol, and lean body mass (Moran, 2008).  Alluding to the effectiveness of their nutritional strategies.  Absorbing western culture has caused Inuit’s of the present to consume larger numbers of calories in carbohydrate form like cereal, breads, rice, and sugar (Moran, 2008).  In addition according to Moran (2008) over half the fat presently utilized by Inuit’s is imported in the form of hydrogenated shortenings and margarine otherwise known as saturated fat.   This leads Inuit’s in the direction of the previously mentioned MetS and in the opposite direction of their predecessors.

     Liu et al. (2006) and Moran (2008) both agree that in the past half-century Inuit’s have undergone notable changes in their lifestyles.  Shifting from a once physically challenging nomadic lifestyle with changing caloric intake needs to a now sedentary lifestyle with relatively high caloric intakes (Jorgensen, Glumer, Bjerregaard, Gyntelberg, Jorgensen, Borch-Johnsen, 2003).  This shift has caused increases in Anemia (Moran, 2008), and the metabolic syndrome constituting obesity, hypertension, glucose intolerance, and dyslipidemia (Liu et al., 2006); all of which are risk factors for cardiovascular disease.  None of which will be helped by the lower air quality fostered with in the new less healthy shelters of modern Inuit’s (Moran, 2008).  Also closely associated with MetS are coronary heart disease and stroke.  Jorgensen et al. (2003) stated that recent studies of the Inuit show high prevalence of diabetes and hypertension where previously there was none observed.  In-activity in this culture coupled with high calorie diets is steering the Inuit’s into an Obesity epidemic (Liu et al., 2006).  Lack of hard labor such as the traditional hunting, trapping, fishing, etc. due to newly adopted technologies has stripped the Inuit’s of severely needed survival dependent physical activity with no urgent motives to maintain a high level of physical fitness or preserve health. 

 

 

Moran, E. (2008) Human Adaptability: An Introduction to Ecological Anthropology. Westview Press, Colorado, 473 pp.

 

Liu, J., Hanely, A.J., Young, T.K., Harris, S.B., Zinman, B. (2006). Characteristics and prevalence of the metabolic syndrome among three ethnic groups in Canada. International Journal of Obesity, 30, 669-676.

 

Jorgensen, M.E., Glumer, C., Bjerregaard, P., Gyntelberg, F., Jorgensen, T., Borch-Johnsen,K. (2003). Obesity and central fat pattern among Greenland Inuit and general population of denmark: Relationship to metabolic risk factors.  International Journal of Obesity, 27, 1507-1515

Inuit and Oil

The Inuit have lived in the Arctic Circle for thousands of years adapting to the extremes posed by the harsh environment. These people have subsisted on the wildlife rich seasons while relying heavily on marine life to provide food year round. Recently the Arctic Circle has become quite popular due to the large estimates of oil and natural gas. There is a large shift taking place in the Inuit culture and it may lead them towards an unsustainable future. Moran states, “Like any nonrenewable resource, the oil will cease to flow eventually, and the sustainability of current patterns of energy use and renewable resource use will be challenged by the kind of economy and ecology that emerge” (Moran 2008, 149). Shifts to westernized ideology will cause short term economic boom and the transformation of a culture. Fossil fuel driven economies are short lived and may cause the destruction of natural renewable resources in which the natives are and may become even more dependent upon.

The arctic cultures have changed in the last decade to depend on money and rely less on subsistence. New western governance has helped to push western ideas on the Inuit transforming all elements of the culture. An article by Leo-Paul Dana, Aldene Meis-Mason and Robert B. Anderson present how the Inuvialuit people feel about oil and gas activities on their land. In conclusion, the “selected” interviewees talked about the economic potentials for oil and gas and that the environmental impacts were minor with proper mitigation (as expected from an economic journal). The future is quite unknown for the arctic natives. Fossil fuel based economies will change the nature of indigenous cultures with short lived profits and loss of game habitat. Can the benefits outweigh the overall costs?

Reference
Dana, Leo-Paul, Aldene Meis-Mason and Robert B. Anderson. Oil and gas and the Inuvialuit people of the Western Arctic. Journal of Enterprising Communities: People and Places in the Global Economy Vol. 2 No. 2, 2008 pp. 151-167. Emerald Group Publishing Limited.

Evolutionary Hangover Transformed

You are a member of an indigenous culture in a developing country that places great emphasis on kinship ties. After years of hard work you have saved up enough to send your son to study abroad in hopes he will get an excellent education and the best chances in life. However, before your son departs your brother tells you his child has fallen gravely ill and needs financial help. What do you do? Jahoda (1962) in his study of the aspects of westernization states his “findings indicate a marked tendency to shift from an extended family orientation to a nuclear family one” and “the loosening of kinship ties which is an almost inevitable concomitant of moving up the social ladder.” It is essential to examine this Western shift and refer back as we explore the people of the Arctic, the Inuit, and their adaptive traits that came and went and returned again westernized. This move towards westernization taken by the Inuit people is a temporary development that foreshadows an even possible further step back than from their old ways if a new middle ground is not reached.

The solution is to head towards a mix of old and new and utilize traditional knowledge in a global environment. However, this path has not been well traveled by many Inuit. Many have retired their sleds and dogs for the snowmobile which can go farther and faster but at the same time disenabling the rider to judge ice conditions (Moran 2008). This dependence on snowmobiles can be disadvantageous when it breaks down and many do not have the capital to replace it. The desire for Western goods creates a wage labor system among the Inuit but the actual jobs go to skilled others resulting in low unemployment rates. Class divisions, economic differences and harm to the arctic surfaces simply add to this snowball effect. In cultures with class and status differences, it is reasonable to presume the undoing of tight kinship ties.

Further desire for technology like rifles and radios raises concern in regards to the preservation of traditional practices. They now predominantly use radios for the weather forecast and in doing so will dull their ancient skill of predicting the weather. Rifles used by hunters kill more than necessary for sustenance disturbing life cycles in the ecosystem at least temporarily and also likely demeaning sacred hunts. Due to the new, foreign glamour in their lives, young Inuit are less willing to face the rigors their forefathers went through in the arctic (Moran). With the onset of Western education in non-Inuit wisdom and boarding schools that take children away from parents who would normally put them through a socialization process, responses to these changes in lifestyle would result in the de-conditioning in physical capacity as well as decreasing respect of Inuit culture by children. The “abandonment of traditional housing for less healthy shelters” or improperly humidified shacks replacing traditional igloos make the Inuit susceptible to respiratory infections putting especially children in danger. With the introduction of Western food, majority of calories are now coming from carbohydrates which causes health problems such as anemia and obesity due to essential nutrient deficiencies (Moran). Both tangible and intangible changes are immense and they have modified many traits of the Inuit challenging their traditions in more ways than just kinship.

It is presumptuous to say westernization for the Inuit has done nothing but unsettle Inuit beliefs. The tape recorder has allowed distant relatives to connect. Newspapers, TV and the internet have enabled those voicing dissent to preserve Inuit identity. Infanticide has nearly been erased from the culture. Moran explains the problems posed by the arctic and describes adaptive strategies used by the Inuit as they form kinship bonds and create the important seal-meat sharing system with the underlying factor of cooperation while surviving in their ecosystem limited by extreme cold. The fundamental physiological adjustments like shivering and behavioral responses such has clothing, shelter, exercise and diet were all honed by ancestors to adapt and survive. But the effects of climate change and, for this essay, contact with American society altered many of their survival strategies. The difficulties of living in the arctic are not the same as the US, so as democracy is not for everyone, so is westernization. Once non-renewable resources are used, the Inuit may have to revert back to the old ways and will not likely have the adaptive strategies to live as before. The push to “lead the new generation to combine traditional knowledge with the need to be part of the global economy” can combat this transformed evolutionary hangover brought on by westernization.


Jahoda, Gustav., 1962: Aspects of Westernization: A Study of Adult-Class Students in Ghana: II: The British Journal of Sociology, 13, 43-56. http://www.jstor.org/stable/587945.

Moran, E., 2008: Human Adaptability: An Introduction to Ecological Anthropology. Westview Press, Colorado, 473 pp.

American Wastefulness Possibly a Ritual

Richard Sosis addresses the issue why religious groups use energy taxing rituals. Rituals force members to participate excessively and proves their commitment to their community. Accordingly, all rituals must be excessive. Perhaps American behaviors centered around consumption are also ritualistic behaviors that help separate Americans from non-Americans for unifying purposes.

Sosis defines a ritual as a method of identifying with a group. “A member must assure everyone that he or she will participate in acquiring food or in defending the group” (Sosis, 2). Modern American society, which has no central religion or culture, instead unites its nation with a desire to consume. Walmart, MTV, McDonalds are icons of American mass consumption. By purchasing and wasting constantly, Americans give each other the impression that it is okay to continue their habits.

For example, the average US household wastes 50% of their food according to a study by the University of Arizona (Clifton). Additionally another study from the same university observed peoples' trash bins. It concluded that, “Rich households, perhaps wanting to be seen to be eating healthily, claimed to consume less of it than they did, whereas poor ones, possibly indulging in wishful thinking, claimed to eat more” (Economist). It is a common notion in American societies that surplus is healthy. Having a lot of something is good.

In fact, Americans in the United States enjoy holidays centered around consuming with others. Thanksgiving, for example, is centered around creating an abundance of food, specifically a stuffed turkey, and feeding their family and close friends. A study on Thanksgiving by Melanie Wallendorf and Eric J. Arnould focus on the ubiquitous principal of proving one's wealth that Thanksgiving inspires. “Thanksgiving day celebrations both mark and prove to participants their ability to meet basic needs amply through consumption” (Wallendorf, 13).

American society has used their consumer society model as method of recognizing themselves. Although other countries participate in consumption as well, Americans are often given credit for inventing it. Therefore, it is likely that American society relies on its culture of consumption to keep reliable consumers in, and conservationists out.

Sources

Clifton, Coles.“America Wastes Half Its Food”. Futurist; May/Jun2005, Vol. 39 Issue 3, p12-12, 2/5p

Economist; 2/28/2009, Vol. 390 Issue 8620, special section p4-4

Sosis, Richard. "The Adaptive Value of Religious Ritual". American Scientist. December 6, 2008

Wallendorf, Melanie; Arnould, Eric J. "We Gather Together": Consumption Rituals of Thanksgiving Day. The Journal of Consumer Research. Vol. 18. No. 1 (Jun., 1991). pp. 13-31

Ethnoecology

There are numerous analytical tools that explain the social structure of human interaction with the ecosystem itself which include ideologies like cultural ecology and ecological anthropology. But the most significant tool that explains the fundamental principles of the interactions is the idea of ethnoecology. The ethnoecological approach explains the fact that what people know about the environment and how they categorize that information will effect what they do in that particular environment (Moran 50). In addition, how people categorize the information is due to strong cognitive skills, not behavior. In Skinner’s “rat box” for example, a rat is in a box and pushes the button for food (Wiki). The behavior learned is to press the bar, but on the other hand the cognitive idea learned is that pressing it produces food. The formation of mental representation in cognition instead of associating between stimuli in behavior is crucial to ethnoecology in terms of taxonomies, or the study of classifications.

Anthropologist Linda Whiteford’s work focused on how the Dominican people living in one barrio in the capital city of Santo Domingo perceive the threats to their ability to prevent dengue fever and their responses to those threats. More than 90 percent of the indigenous people interviewed accurately described how it was transmitted, where the mosquitoes interacted, and how to prevent it without any medical intervention (Whiteford 14-15). Their mental representation, or cognitive skills, created an accurate taxonomie of the mosquito-spread fever, which in return helped them react to their environment in ways to prevent or treat it.

Although the knowledge drawn from these taxonomies were accurate, the knowledge itself is not synonymous with the behavior in some occasions. The indigenous people understood that mosquitoes form around open areas with water, and therefore close all containers with water left outside in order to prevent dengue fever. But in more than a few instances, Whiteford discovered that the containers were left open for long periods of time while the people knew mosquitoes could contaminate it (Whiteford 12,17). This kind of behavior does not abide by the ethnoecological principle, and therefore more research would need to be implemented to encode this opposing behavior. Ethnoecology is crucial to researching the relationship between the ecosystem and humans, and therefore is a key tool to the explanation of our behavior.


Linda M. Whiteford, The Ethnoecology of Dengue Fever
Medical Anthropology Quarterly, New Series, Vol. 11, No. 2,
Published by: Blackwell Publishing on behalf of the American Anthropological Association. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. Web. 7 Oct. 2009

Moran, Emilio. "Human Adaptability: An Introduction to Ecological Anthropology." W.W.
Norton: New York. 2001. Print.


"Operant Conditioning Chamber." Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2009. Web. 04 Oct. 2009.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operant_conditioning_chamber

Religious Ritual and Outsiders

Religion serves as a way to bring people together, while at the same time, it also serves as a way to make a differentiate from outsiders. In his article about religious ritual, Richard Sosis discusses the idea that religious ritual provides a way to secure the bonds between people and also a way to clearly separate the members from the outsiders.
Sosis discusses that believers all over the world differentiate themselves from others according to their religion, "Moonies shave their heads, Jain monks wear contraptions on their heads and feet to avoid killing insects, and clergy almost everywhere dress in outfits that distinguish them from the rest of society" (Sosis 1). Whether it be an outward display, or an inward belief, religions have ways of identifying themselves and standing out among the crowd. Sosis introduces an idea that behavioral ecologist William Irons has come up with. Irons believes that, "...religious activities signal commitment to other members of the group"(Sosis 2). When members participate in an activity or ritual, they are cementing their bond with the group.
While most believe that one of the most important parts of religion is that it, "...promotes a sense of belonging"(Oswald 40), it is also believed that, "...ritual unites a group of people because it is performed against an implicit or explicit other" (IBID). The idea of segregating oneself from others brings one closer to their own group because it clearly creates the lines between the two. It is easier to relate to one's group because they all practice the same thing, they can band together against outsiders because of a common interest.
Cementing group bonds by segregating from others is not just found in religion. This practice can be found in places like middle school. If one's group of friends bonds over their love of a certain television show or something, they can sometimes separate against others who don't watch the same show. It can even go farther when one group bullies another because of different or opposing interests. The idea of bonding a group by way of designating and defining outsiders plays a part in religion and the strong bonds that believers of the same religion have with one and other.


Oswald, Ramona Faith"Religion, Family, and Ritual". Review of Religious Research 43.1 (2001): 39-50.

Sosis, Richard "The Adaptive Value of Religious Ritual". American Scientist 92.2 (2004): 166- 172.

Religious Ritual and Dissociation

Richard Sosis’ article in American Scientist begins with his search for a rational explanation of religious ritual; his initial example was of people wearing clothes that are not suited to the high temperature climate that caused him to see the behavior as irrational and linked to religious tradition. The view that “many religious acts appear peculiar to the outsider” is one that could be extended to many other aspects of human interactions when in a group.

At school, we all agree to certain roles and rules of behavior; being a social animal requires us to know and abide by the rules of group interaction. We shake hands when we greet people, we stand and pledge allegiance to a piece of cloth (daily in many cases); we observe peculiar practices in most social situations to show that we understand the rules of the group and want to be accepted.

Religious practices are often more intense, rigid and regulated than those of social practices, however, there are penalties for not observing social practices just as there are for not observing religious practices.

Sosis also poses the question, “Why do religious beliefs, practices and institutions continue to be an essential part of human social life?” The whole concept here is the social aspect of human nature or the social aspect of the umbworld. We are not solitary chimps in the forest/jungle. We need and seek out the company of others; and when we gather, we create hierarchies: a leader emerges, subordinates follow, and rules are imposed, (to greater and lesser degrees).

Religion has grown out of our folk knowledge, out of our group explanations of the how’s and why’s of the umbworld. It imbues objects, stories, practices and persons with a level of importance to the group we call sacred. The acceptance, community, support network, friendship, and kinship that develops from being included in a group is reinforced by members adherence to what the group considers important/sacred. Denial or ambivalence to the sacred aspects of the group shifts that person from a member to an outsider. Thus, the group has relevance to those who are invested in it.

Dissociation is the feeling of being distinct or unconnected, or being regarded as separate from a group, unconnected from a group. In a study called “Religious Ritual and Dissociation in India and Australia,” researchers claim that India is considered one of the most religious countries in the world. The study participants of Indian descent were found to have significantly high feelings of dissociation when studying/working in Australia. This was attributed to the absence of religious ritual in their communities abroad. The study also found that: “Approximately 70% of India's population is Hindu, and although religious practice among Hindus has declined somewhat in recent years, it cannot be compared with the more rapid decline in religious practices in Western countries (Hiltebeitel,1987). Saha (1993) states that Hinduism has not been strongly influenced by modern science because it has "accorded a place" (p.65) for science in its belief system.”

Sosis sites a study by Iannaccone where, “the most demanding groups also have the greatest number of committed members. He (Iannaccone) found that the more distinct a religious group was – how much the group’s lifestyle differed from mainstream America – the higher its attendance rates at services.” This lends some credence to the theory that religious ritual reinforces a sense of belonging and membership to a group; and absence of ritual increases the sense of dissociation.

Works Cited:

Sosis, Richard "The Adaptive Value of Religious Ritual." American Scientist 92.2 (2004): 166-172.

Dorahy, Martin J., and Pramod Kumar "Religious ritual and dissociation in India and Australia." Journal of Psychology 131.5 (1997): 471.

Environmental Determinism

Every existing society holds a particular view of the natural world and their place within it. Some saw the environment simply as backdrop to the culture humans establish for themselves, and others believed that the importance was equally shared in interaction between humans and the environment. The third view of human-habitat interaction, which was acknowledged well into the 20th century, was the idea of Environmental Determinism.

Environmental Determinism is the view that the physical environment, rather than people, is what determines culture. This form of determinism closely connected to the Social Darwinism ideologies of the time. Social Darwinism sought to explain "which societies were fittest in the imperial struggle for world domination" and Environmental determinism provided a naturalistic answer (Peet 310). It was believed that "the interrelation between groups and their habitats produced specific kinds of cultural traits" - humans adapt to their environment and not the other way around (Moran 30). Friedrich Ratzel, a noted ethnographic scholar, promoted the idea that a physical climate was a central factor in determining a populations cultural and social attitudes, and therefore defined their overall success in the world.

A lot of unsubstantiated claims were made regarding the personality traits of various cultures based on their geographic climate. For example, "tropical climates were said to cause laziness, relaxed attitudes and promiscuity, while the frequent variability in the weather of the middle latitudes led to more determined and driven work ethics" (Wikipedia). The view that geography and climate can influence the psychological temperament of people, and therefore define the behavioral culture of their society seems particularly absurd. Some determinist perspectives made a little more sense, however, pointing out that geographically speaking, "mountains produce isolation and cultural stability, while lowlands promote racial and cultural mixture and migration" (Moran 30). As a whole, Environmental Determinism was too crude of a theory to remain viable, and combinatory theories such as human adaptation to environment became the prime explanation for human’s role in the world.

Moran, Emilio. "Human Adaptability: An Introduction to Ecological Anthropology." W.W. Norton: New York. 2001. Print.

Peet, Richard "The Social Origins of Environmental Determinism." Annals of the Association of American Geographers 75.3 (1985): 309-333. Academic Search Premier. EBSCO. Web. 4 Oct. 2009.

"Environmental determinism." Wikipedia. Wikipedia, 2009. Web. 04 Oct. 2009.